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Which do you believe was the first truly personal computer?

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thePCstory index

Notes:

S2 Foreword to thePCstory
S3 A work of history?
S4 1              Numbering
S5 Keeping tally
S6 Counting on it
S7 Look ten fingers
S8 Something for nothing
S9 2              Calculations – and devices
S10 Go figure
S11 Beads and wire
S12 Slip sliding away
S13 A plague on your devices
S14 Elusive notions
S15 Falling off the tables
S16 Fascinating Ada
S17 Continental shifts
S18 Yankee doodles
S19 Trials and tabulations
S20 Power plays
S21 Buttons and bells
S22 Target practice
S23 Blue dynasty
S24 3              Electronic brains – mainframe computers
S25 By Zuse
S26 Spirit of Babbage
S27 Garage sale
S28 Simple as ABC
S29 Ciphers and fish
S30 Colossal response
S31 Britain’s wasted legacy
S32 Mark time
S33 Pick up something from the PX
S34 On manoeuvres
S35 Amazing Grace
S36 Trumping in with an Ace
S37 E=MC²
S38 Betting on track
S39 Banking on it
S40 More applications
S41 Who was first among equals?
S42 Decoupling software
S43 4              British Brains
S44 Manchester Baby
S45 Ferranti
S46 Turing’s demise
S47 Further contributions
S48 Selling computers
S49 Anyone for tea?  Cambridge University and LEO
S50 In the other boat
S51 Musical chairs
S52 5              Global sprawl
S53 Bouncing back from WWII
S54 Germany
S55 Japan
S56 Italy
S57 Other Europeans
S58 The Netherlands
S59 Norway
S60 France
S61 Trans-European
S62 Soviet computing
S63 Eastern Europe
S64 Computer turbo
S65 6   It was rocket science – the PC catalyst
S66 Convict No N1442
S67 Object PS-1
S68 Playing catch-up
S69 Time-sharing
S70 A development whirlwind
S71 Air defence
S72 Computers transistorised
S73 Minicomputers
S74 Olsen and the Family
S75 Railing against authority – MIT’s Tech Model Railroad Club
S76 Computer games
S77 Gaming for money
S78 Coin-op games
S79 To boldly go
S80 Asian invasion
S81 Space men
S82 7              Building blocks – advances in electronics
S83 Chipping away at progress
S84 Tiny bells
S85 Silicon Valley
S86 IC IC IC
S87 Moore’s Law
S88 Thanks for them
S89 Intelligent choice
S90 I’ll Hoff and I’ll puff
S91 Project to product
S92 Who started it?
S93 MPUs like mushrooms
S94 It’s not just about size
S95 What about speed?
S96 8              Kit and Caboodle – hobby computer kits
S97 PC Genesis
S98 Build your own computer
S99 Scoping the d-i-y business
S100 Open the show Hal
S101 Not a recipe for success
S102 Meanwhile out West
S103 Adding fizz to the proceedings
S104 Course followed by chips
S105 Micral
S106 MCM
S107 Scelbi
S108 Other kits
S109 British kits
S110 Second-rate star goes nova – the Altair
S111 9         Large pebble in the pond – the PC movement
S112 Serving the community
S113 People power
S114 Getting it together – Homebrew Computer Club
S115 Worshipping at the Altair
S116 Establishing fundamentals – BASIC
S117 Software opportunity comes knocking
S118 Early Gates – developing skills
S119 Traf-O-Data – working with emulation
S120 BASIC for Altair
S121 Altair sold on
S122 Software without charge
S123 They also served – Altair boys
S124 Box shifters – Byte Shop
S125 Filling the gap – Processor Technology
S126 Peddling kits – KIM and TIM
S127 IMSAI and Computerland
S128 Kits by catalogue – SwTPc
S129 Homebrewing the SOL
S130 Getting it taped – Kansas City and CUTS
S131 Disk jockeying – Shugart and Ernest
S132 10           Good thinking – the PC prophets
S133 You may think that – Bush and Memex
S134 Hyperbeat – Nelson’s philosophy
S135 Ride that wave – LINC and HP
S136 Mother of all demos – Augmentation Research Center
S137 Joined-up thinking – repositories of knowledge 
S138 Improving the man-computer relationship – Licklider
S139 MIT points the way – Kleinrock and Roberts
S140 Leaving the ARC – Californian motivation 
S141 11           PARC and ride – Xerox designs the PC
S142 Office of the Future
S143 Gaggle of gurus – Bob Taylor
S144 Small thinking – Alan Kay
S145 To the max – Lampson and Thacker
S146 Collaborators – English and Duvall
S147 Singing Alto – the first personal computer?
S148 Bravo! – Simonyi
S149 Gypsy Mott – Mott and Tesler
S150 Out of the ether – Metcalfe and Ethernet
S151 PARC a failure?
S152 Dry copies – Chester Carlson and Xerography
S153 Optical allusions – Starkweather and laser printing
S154 A postscript coming first – John Warnock
S155 WIMPs – opening the windows
S156 Taking note – Kay and NoteTaker
S157 D* – let’s talk of dolphins and dandelions
S158 Birth of a star – Xerox Star 8010
S159 Geometrical progression
S160 Unprotected – why no Xerox patents
S161 12           Wait for ages, then three come along
S162 No longer just a hobby
S163 Coming to fruition – Apple
S164 Early Wozniak
S165 Cream Soda computer
S166 Phreaking out
S167 Working for others
S168 Meeting the micro
S169 Own designs – Apple I
S170 Selling fruit – Jobs and Wayne
S171 Taking a byte – Paul Terrell and a PO
S172 The end of the beginning – divest?
S173 Ripening – Mike Markkula
S174 Keeping up appearances – Apple II
S175 Adding colour – Apple II
S176 Going to market – Apple III and IPO
S177 The beat goes on – Apple Corps
S178 Military titles – Commodore
S179 Earning stripes – typewriters to calculators
S180 Acquiring a mascot – the PET
S181 A second victory – VIC-20
S182 Further promotion – Commodore 64
S183 Retailing computers – Tandy
S184 L for leather
S185 Trash sells – TRS-80
S186 Getting basic – TinyBASIC and Microsoft
S187 Government interference – FCC regulations
S188 Jet setting – PET Jet, berms and Flight 191
S189 Slow penetration
S190 Comparisons are studious
S191 13           Games people play
S192 Strategy games
S193 Three houses and triple scores
S194 Belligerent games – early computer war gaming
S195 Screen games
S196 Early shots – bouncing ball, OXO and Tennis for Two
S197 Forefathers or two?  Baer and Bushnell
S198 Rising sun developments
S199 House of cards – Nintendo
S200 Take a picture – Sega
S201 Coining it in
S202 Coming home
S203 Bouncing along – Pong
S204 Plug and play – Atari VCS
S205 Beyond our Ken – Intellivision
S206 Hee-haw – Donkey Kong
S207 Post console crash
S208 For all the family – Nintendo NES
S209 Megabucks – Sega Master System
S210 Counter blow – Nintendo SNES
S211 New horse in the race – PC Engine and TurboGrafx
S212 Serious new player – Sony comes to play
S213 Also rans – Neo Geo
S214 Handing out more fun – handheld consoles
S215 14           Content – software for games consoles
S216 Lock and load – CD- and DVD-ROMs
S217 Enthusiasts
S218 Digging deep – Colossal Cave
S219 Soaring high – Flight Simulator
S220 All the As and an I?  – games software houses
S221 Caring and sharing – games shareware
S222 New game
S223 The high sierras – Sierra Online
S224 You can be Sirius – Sirius Software
S225 Oh brother – Brøderbund
S226 UK can play too – Bug-Byte, Mindscape, Psion…
S227 It’s in the game – Electronic Arts
S228 Outstanding play – Frogger, Pac-Man, Tetris…
S229 15           The second wave – as PCs abound
S230 Check-mate
S231 Candy and Colleen – Atari 400 and 800
S232 Bullish approach – Hi-Toro to Amiga
S233 Comings and goings – Atari v Commodore v Amiga
S234 In search of excellence – Atari XE and ST
S235 TI – a case study of its time
S236 The corgi that roared – Mettoy Dragon
S237 Approaching the spectrum
S238 Columns to calculators – Sinclair the early days
S239 A British apple – NEB funding for a UK PC
S240 Through a Prism – Sinclair distribution
S241 Going global – Sinclair spreads its wings
S242 Silicon Fen
S243 Great oaks – Acorn Computers
S244 Splitting the proton – the BBC Micro
S245 Electron storm – Acorn Electron
S246 Urbane spread – Oric, Lynx, Research Machines, Apricot…
S247 One giant leap – Sinclair QL
S248 Portability – Psion
S249 Sugar craft – Amstrad
S250 Japanese computing comes of age 
S251 A light in the east – Toshiba
S252 Elevating the argument – Hitachi
Japanese computing (2)
S253 Building mountains – Fujitsu
S254 Transistor radios to world domination – Sony
Japanese computing (3)
S255 Self-propelled – Sharp
s256 Coming down the line – NEC
Japanese computing (4)
S257 Timing it right – Seiko/Epson
S258 Other Japanese players – Canon, Matsushita, Mitsubishi, Oki…
S259 Asian competition (s259)
S260 Taiwan – Acer, ASUS, Quanta…
S261 Korea – Daewoo, Goldstar, Samsung
S262 China – Great Wall, Founder, Lenovo
[India - to be added]
S263 Russian revolutions – MIPT, LEMZ, Elektronica, Pentagon, Kraftway
S264 16           Getting serious – the PC comes of age
S265 The seventy stone gorilla is roused – IBM
S266 IBM Entry Level Systems
S267 Software sourcing for the IBM PC
S268 BASIC and Microsoft
S269 Operating systems
S270 Raising standards
S271 Intergalactic thinking
S272 With BIOS
S273 Selection process for the IBM PC
S274 Launch of the IBM PC
S275 Send in the clones
S276 Copyrighting a ROM? – Franklin
S277 Applying BIOS – Columbia, Eagle
S278 Reverse engineering – Compaq, Phoenix, Zenith
S279 Action and reaction
S280 Extending the PC – PC-XT
S281 A PC for peanuts – PCjr
S282 Another try – PC AT
S283 It was all getting personal – PS/2
S284 Apple response
S285 Apple III problems
S286 Apple visits PARC – Apple Lisa
S287 Trouble in the orchard
S288 Jef Raskin defines and names the Macintosh
S289 Jobs takes the helm – redefining the Macintosh
S290 Strength in depth – the Macintosh team
S291 A new dimension in software – Mac software
S292 Jobs’ discomforter
S293 Stretching the fabric
S294 Geometry and 3D – Silicon Graphics
S295 3M computing – Sun Microsystems
S296 More 3M – the NeXT big thing
S297 17           Clever GUIs – PCs get user friendly
S298 Software driven – Microsoft evolves
S299 Remorseless growth – DOS
S300 Symbiotic relationships – Microsoft and GUI 
S301 At the human interface – Interface Manager
S302 Sand in your eyes – Microsoft and the Mac
S303 Jockeying for position – GUIs, Microsoft and Apple
S304 Steamy windows – Microsoft Windows at last
S305 Fresh openings – UNIX to Linux
S306 Copyleft and GNU
S307 Tux the penguin – Linux
S308 Putting a hat on it – Red Hat
S309 Is it catching?  Viruses and malware
S310 Replication – John von Neumann and Creeper
S311 Fact following fiction – Wabbit, Pervade, Stoned…
S312 Vermicelli – worms
S313 Immunisation programs 
S314 18           Number crunching – spreadsheets and database
S315 Forecasts and what-ifs – spreadsheets
S316 Cross-casting to VisiCalc
S317 Securing software – what no patent?
S318 Keep it in context – Context MBA
S319 You’ve been framed – Framework
S320 Lotus blossom – Lotus 1-2-3
S321 Super-calci-fragilistic – SuperCalc
S322 Getting it all under control – databasing
S323 Navigating data – navigational databases
S324 Bachman overdrive – IDS
S325 Who was the culprit? – Cullinane
S326 Close relations – relational databases
S327 Codd Father- IMS, System R, SQL
S328 Moving the base- Ingres
S329 New dimensions- OLAP
S330 Expressing oneself – IRI and Express
S331 Missing link – Essbase
S332 Financial databasing – IMRS to Hyperion
S333 Consulting the oracle – Ellison and Oracle
S334 Developing SQL – Sybase
S335 Running the marathon – ISAM to Informix
S336 Vikings and foxes – PC databasing
S337 Ratliff’s Vulcan – the evolution of dBase
S338 Reynard enters the coop – FoxBase
S339 Omega to Access
S340 That’s it in a nutshell – the path to FileMaker
S341 Bean counting – accounting by computer
S342 Business accounting
S343 Just peachy – Peachtree Software
S344 It takes wisdom – Sage
S345 Plains speaking- Great Plains Software to Microsoft
S346 The platinum approach- Epicor
S347 Counting non-profits – Blackbaud
S348 Clouded thinking – SaaS
S349 Home budgeting
S350 Chip off the old block – Meca
S351 Makes your heartbeat faster – Quicken
S352 I’m a gnu- open-source accounting
S353 Money, money, money – Microsoft
S354 19           Publish and be damned – word-processing/DTP
S355 Typewriting
S356 Mightier than the sword – Remington
S357 IBM typewriters
S358 The term WP
S359 WP machines
S360 Word Processing Software
S361 Electric Pencil to WordStar
S362 WordPerfect to Borland
S363 Graphics
S364 Going in to print – TeX
S365 Founding Adobe and developing Postscript
S366 15th century printer to PageMaker – Aldus
S367 Juggling the catalyst for Quark
S368 Adobe’s rapid progress
S369 Vector graphics – Adobe Illustrator
S370 Make it snappy – Photoshop
S371 Who says they’re not out to get me?  Geschke’s kidnap
S372 Moving it around – Acrobat and PDF
S373 Laying it out – Adobe InDesign
S374 Integrated approach – Adobe Creative Suite
S375 Corel
S376 Macromedia
S377 Shockwave
S378 Flash
S379 Dreamweaver
S380 Fireworks 
S381 20           Read all about it – the PC and books
S382 Early digitisation
S383 OCLC and WorldCat
S384 Project Gutenburg
S385 Floppy books
S386 Books on CD-ROM
S387 First digital book?
S388 BiblioBytes
S389 Downloading books
S390 eBooks and ISBN
S391 ePub
S392 Early eReaders
S393 SoftBook
S394 Rocket eBook
S395 Cytale
S396 Online eReading
S397 Précis – Amazon Search Inside and Google Print
S398 Full text – Google Library Project
S399 Open content alliance and MSN Book Search
S400 Pulp fiction – backlash against Google plans
S401 Bookselling – Google Editions
S402 Digital  rights – Adobe and Microsoft
S403 Second generation eReaders
S404 e-Ink
S405 iRex iLiad
S406 Jinke Hanlin eReaders
S407 Sony Readers
S408 Bookeen
S409 Amazon Kindle
S410 jetBook
S411 Barnes & Noble Nook
S412 Kobo reader
S413 Apple iPad
S414 21           Fun and games – the second console wars
S415 Five-a-side – 5th generation consoles
S416 Six of one – 6th generation consoles
S417 Lucky seven – 7th generation consoles
S418 Best scores – top-selling console software
S419 22           Slavery without shame – Robotics and AI 
S420 The Ministry of Truth and Androbot
S421 Robots in history
S422 Industrial robots
S423 Tortoises and Turtles
S424 Fictional robots
S425 Defining robots
S426 Personal Robots
S427 Artificial Intelligence and robots
[Virtual reality - to be added]
S428 Robotic pets and toys
S429 23           Getting in touch – communicating by computer
S430 Linking television and computers
S431 Teletext
S432 Viewdata
S433 Micronet 800
S434 Minitel
S435 Mupid
S436 Getting connected – modems
S437 Early connections
S438 US Robotics
S439 Hayes Communications
S440 Prism Modems
S441 Trailblazing with Telebit
S442 Towards the ARPANET
S443 Making networks manageable
S444 Which model – telephone or telegraph?
S445 Defining an approach – Baran at RAND
S446 NPL comes up with the name – packet switching
S447 Build it and they will come – bidding for the ARPANET work
S448 Support and communication – RFCs
S449 IMP-ish behaviour
S450 ARPANET going international
S451 The French approach – Cyclades
S452 Networking software
S453 Vint Cerf and TCP/IP
S454 Working with the network – FTP, Telnet, Mbone
S455 A spammer in the works – eMail and spam
S456 24           Keeping connected – PC networking
S457 PC Interconnections
S458 Not sold a pup – Xerox PARC networking
S459 Squeezing messages down the phone line – ISDN
S460 Hawaiian approach – ALOHAnet
S461 Ethernet and 3Com
S462 Thinking different – AppleTalk to Airport
S463 Network operating system – Novell
S464 Routers – Cisco
S465 Telebit Router
S466 Network Forums
S467 Usenet
S468 Bulletin boards
S469 CBBS
S470 WELL
S471 PEN
S472 Fido
S473 Eunet
S474 Secret connections
S475 No military purpose
S476 BITNet
S477 Janet
S478 Disbursement
S479 25           Dub dub dub – the World Wide Web
S480 Early search engines
S481 CWIS and Gopher
S482 CERN
S483 Index
S484 Enquire
S485 World Wide Web
S486 The web spreads
S487 Early Information providers
S488 CompuServe
S489 GEnie
S490 Prodigy
S491 Browsers
S492 Berners-Lee browser
S493 First out of the starting blocks – Erwise
S494 Music to our eyes – Viola, Cello and Opera
S495 The next medley – Mosaic, Spyglass, Microsoft and Netscape
S496 Colonisation – Navigators and Explorers
S497 Once you have a colony – go on Safari
S498 The return of Mozilla
S499 Shiny new approach – Google Chrome
S500 Web services
S501 The Source via Gameline to AOL
S502 Architext to Excite
S503 Filo and Yang’s Yahoo!
S504 DEC’s AltaVista
S505 Microsoft marches on
S506 MSN
S507 Hotmail
S508 Messenger
S509 Jeeves and Ask.com
S510 Creating Google
S511 Attracting income – advertising on Google
S512 Lift off – Google attracts investment
S513 Foundation – Google’s early commitment to philanthropy
S514 Culture of non-compliance with the norms
S515 Google growing up – attracting professional management
S516 Constant innovation
S517 Google and AOL
S518 Google Compute
S519 Gmail
S520 Picasa
S521 Google v Overture
S522 Earthly progress
S523 Mapping the world – and beyond
S524 Google communication
S525 Google social networking
S526 Google in 2011
S527 Even more Web services
S528 Baidu
S529 Freenet
S530 Amazon
S531 Napster
S532 eBay
S533 Pierre Omidyar
S534 Auction Web
S535 Early eBay progress
S536 eBay in use
S537 eBay management team
S538 eBay Motors
S539 Remarkable eBay transactions
S540 eBay Traders
S541 PayPal
S542 Giving Works
S543 eBay pushing the fabric
S544 Half.com
S545 Craigslist
S546 Adding categories
S547 Drop shipping
S548 Skype
S549 Ranking sellers
S550 Seeking answers – Wikipedia
S551 26           It’s a date – social networking
S552 Six Degrees of separation
S553 Keeping in touch with old friends
S554 Video file sharing – YouTube
S555 Business Networking – LinkedIn
S556 Hispanic social networking – Hi5
S557 MySpace
S558 Facebook
S559 Survival of the fittest – Facemash
S560 Rowing and rows – Harvard Connection
S561 Launching thefacebook
S562 Rolling out to other colleges
S563 Further conflict – ConnectU
S564 The influence of Sean Parker
S565 Progress through new services
S566 Birthdays to Bebo
S567 Russian socialising – Badoo
S568 Despatches to Twitter
S569 Courier services – Jack Dorsey
S570 Evan Williams and Blogger.com
S571 All of a Twitter
S572 Operational matters
S573 Spin off and take off
S574 750 tweets a second
S575 27           On the move – progress and mobile computing
S576 Major shifts in the PC market
S577 A PC exit for IBM
S578 PCs sold on-line – Dell and Gateway
S579 Into the new millennium with Apple
S580 Jonathan Ive and iMac
S581 Steve Jobs’ four-cell plan
S582 The next objective – the Digital Hub
S583 Revolutionising music – the iPod
S584 Acquisitive Microsoft 
S585 Acquiring  strength – HP
S586 PC mobility
S587 Luggables and laptops
S588 Organising with Psion
S589 Wireless connectivity
S590 Personal digital assistance
S591 Phones get smarter
S592 Keep taking the tablets
S593 Apple iPad
S601 The Cloud
S594 28           Analysis – what has the PC done for us?
S595 What happened to the paperless society?
S596 Email challenges
S597 Perfect market?
S598 Productivity
S599 Maintaining your identity
S600 Artificial intelligence